Prior to answering the following questions make sure you read assignments in your “Physical Geology” online textbook from Chapter 13 (Streams and Floods), Chapter 14 (Groundwater), and Chapter 12 (Mass wasting). Also, you are expected to research outside sources from my course Webliography (Content tab) and the Internet. Answers must be in APA-style paragraph form with proper APA citations. Graphics may be used to support your answers, but make sure you cite your source below the graphic.

1) Sketch or diagram “your interpretation” (computer or hand sketch, but not a book illustration) of the “Hydrologic Cycle”.  What is the ultimate energy source for the water cycle to function on Earth?  Label the major processes of the water cycle concept in the hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere, and geosphere. Use arrows to show the progression of (H2O) through the cycle.

2) Define and describe the following geologic surface water terms.  Make sure you give a geologic location example for each term:

1. a) drainage basin (watershed), drainage divide, continental divide, and tributaries
2. b) stream erosion features: waterfalls, canyon (gorge), and V-shaped valley
3. c) stream deposition features: stream load, alluvial material (alluvium), flood plain, and delta.

3) Define “groundwater” and discuss its origin and role in the hydrologic cycle. Then define and describe the following groundwater terms:

• porosity vs. permeability
• zone of saturation and zone of aeration
• water table
• aquifer(describe one aquifer in detail)

4) Define the term “mass wasting” and the major types of geologic mass wasting.  What are the major natural forces and conditions that control mass wasting?  What human activities can influence mass wasting?  Give a specific example of a geological mass wasting hazard occurrence.

5) View the video at Karst Topography: A Unique and Fragile Environment then discuss in a few paragraphs; karst geology, including the origin of the term “karst”, the cave-forming sedimentary rock type present, and the major karst surface and subsurface features.  What is the major geologic hazard associated with karst regions?  Choose one karst or cavern location in the USA (or other country) and describe the surface and subsurface environment. Is there any unique (endemic) subsurface life there, and what are the human threats to this fragile environment?

Prior to answering the following questions make sure you read assignments in your “Physical Geology” online textbook from Chapter 13 (Streams and Floods), Chapter 14 (Groundwater), and Chapter 12 (Mass wasting). Also, you are expected to research outside sources from my course Webliography (Content tab) and the Internet. Answers must be in APA-style paragraph form with proper APA citations. Graphics may be used to support your answers, but make sure you cite your source below the graphic.

1) Sketch or diagram “your interpretation” (computer or hand sketch, but not a book illustration) of the “Hydrologic Cycle”.  What is the ultimate energy source for the water cycle to function on Earth?  Label the major processes of the water cycle concept in the hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere, and geosphere. Use arrows to show the progression of (H2O) through the cycle.

2) Define and describe the following geologic surface water terms.  Make sure you give a geologic location example for each term:

1. a) drainage basin (watershed), drainage divide, continental divide, and tributaries
2. b) stream erosion features: waterfalls, canyon (gorge), and V-shaped valley
3. c) stream deposition features: stream load, alluvial material (alluvium), flood plain, and delta.

3) Define “groundwater” and discuss its origin and role in the hydrologic cycle. Then define and describe the following groundwater terms:

• porosity vs. permeability
• zone of saturation and zone of aeration
• water table
• aquifer(describe one aquifer in detail)

4) Define the term “mass wasting” and the major types of geologic mass wasting.  What are the major natural forces and conditions that control mass wasting?  What human activities can influence mass wasting?  Give a specific example of a geological mass wasting hazard occurrence.

5) View the video at Karst Topography: A Unique and Fragile Environment then discuss in a few paragraphs; karst geology, including the origin of the term “karst”, the cave-forming sedimentary rock type present, and the major karst surface and subsurface features.  What is the major geologic hazard associated with karst regions?  Choose one karst or cavern location in the USA (or other country) and describe the surface and subsurface environment. Is there any unique (endemic) subsurface life there, and what are the human threats to this fragile environment?

Prior to answering the following questions make sure you read assignments in your “Physical Geology” online textbook from Chapter 13 (Streams and Floods), Chapter 14 (Groundwater), and Chapter 12 (Mass wasting). Also, you are expected to research outside sources from my course Webliography (Content tab) and the Internet. Answers must be in APA-style paragraph form with proper APA citations. Graphics may be used to support your answers, but make sure you cite your source below the graphic.

1) Sketch or diagram “your interpretation” (computer or hand sketch, but not a book illustration) of the “Hydrologic Cycle”.  What is the ultimate energy source for the water cycle to function on Earth?  Label the major processes of the water cycle concept in the hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere, and geosphere. Use arrows to show the progression of (H2O) through the cycle.

2) Define and describe the following geologic surface water terms.  Make sure you give a geologic location example for each term:

1. a) drainage basin (watershed), drainage divide, continental divide, and tributaries
2. b) stream erosion features: waterfalls, canyon (gorge), and V-shaped valley
3. c) stream deposition features: stream load, alluvial material (alluvium), flood plain, and delta.

3) Define “groundwater” and discuss its origin and role in the hydrologic cycle. Then define and describe the following groundwater terms:

• porosity vs. permeability
• zone of saturation and zone of aeration
• water table
• aquifer(describe one aquifer in detail)

4) Define the term “mass wasting” and the major types of geologic mass wasting.  What are the major natural forces and conditions that control mass wasting?  What human activities can influence mass wasting?  Give a specific example of a geological mass wasting hazard occurrence.

5) View the video at Karst Topography: A Unique and Fragile Environment then discuss in a few paragraphs; karst geology, including the origin of the term “karst”, the cave-forming sedimentary rock type present, and the major karst surface and subsurface features.  What is the major geologic hazard associated with karst regions?  Choose one karst or cavern location in the USA (or other country) and describe the surface and subsurface environment. Is there any unique (endemic) subsurface life there, and what are the human threats to this fragile environment?

Prior to answering the following questions make sure you read the assignments in your “Physical Geology, 2^nd ed” online textbook from Chapter 8 (Measuring Geologic Time).  Also, you may need to review Chapter 6 (Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks) and Chapter 5 (Weathering and Soil) from the previous week that will be helpful.  You are expected to research outside scientific sources from my course Webliography (Content tab) and the Internet.

This project will concentrate on two geologic topics: (1) “sedimentary rocks” (esp. stratigraphy a sub-science of geology), and (2) “fossils” (paleontology a sub-science of geology).  It will require you to engage in some geological research on your local area (also in preparation for the final exam).  It is recommended that you support your answers with graphics (e.g., photographs, maps, graphs, diagrams, cross-sections, geologic time charts, etc.), if they help with explanations or descriptions and are directly related to the answer.  Citations in APA-style required for graphic sources.

(NOTE: You will need to go to your state or national geological survey/natural resources department to get this information – see my course Webliography under American Association of State Geologists (AASG) for all the state geological websites.

1) Define the geological terms “bedrock” and “outcrop”.  What types of surface material may be covering many bedrock areas, and what geological processes created or deposited it above the bedrock?  Define and describe “soil”, how it forms, and why it is such an essential resource.

2) What type of bedrock is in your local area?  Identify the rock type and its geological age (Period and Ma)?  What other types of bedrock are in your region?  Describe the location and area distribution (use a state geologic map to show this).  Does the change in bedrock also change the topography (elevation and terrain) of your state or region?

3) Define the geological term “fossil”.  What is “fossilization” and how does it occur?  Why are fossils almost exclusively discovered in sedimentary rocks?  Give examples of the various types of fossils with their geologic discovery location.  What do fossils indicate to geologists about Earth’s geologic history?

4) Are there any fossils in your region (state or nation)?  If so, what fossils are found there and what type of rock are they found in?  What is the geologic period and age range (Ma) that these fossils were formed in?  Describe one specific fossil type found there (photos recommended).  If there are any national or state parks with fossils in your region you may use these locations.  If there are no local or state fossil sites, use one of the US national parks, such as:

Dinosaur NP (Utah), Petrified Forest NP (Arizona), or Badlands NP (South Dakota).

5) In a couple of paragraphs, explain how paleontology evidence and faunal succession supports:

(a) The “Theory of Evolution”

(b) The “Theory of Plate Tectonics”

Prior to answering the following questions make sure you read the assignments in your “Physical Geology 2ed” online textbook from; Chapter 5.1-5.4 (Weathering and Soil), Chapter 6 (Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks) and Chapter 7 (Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks).  You are expected to research from your course textbook, and outside sources from my Webliography (Content tab), and the Internet.  Make sure you use APA-style citations for all your geologic research sources at the end of this assignment.  Submit directly to the Project 3 assignments folder.

1) Define and describe in detail the following sedimentary processes and two sedimentary rocks:

• Weathering and sediments
• Lithification of sedimentary rocks
• Strata
• Stratigraphy
• Evaporites (evaporite minerals and sedimentary rocks)
• Concept of Horizontality
• Concept of Superposition
• Define and describe two (2) sedimentary rocks (one clastic and one chemical or organic sedimentary rock) and give an economic use (if any).

2) Define and describe in detail the following metamorphic processes and two metamorphic rocks:

• Metamorphism (origin of term) and metamorphic rocks
• Regional metamorphism
• Contact Metamorphism
• Shock metamorphism
• Define and describe two (2) metamorphic rocks and give an economic use (if any).
• Can extraterrestrial sources cause metamorphism?  Name and describe one location where and when this occurred (Note: satellite image, photo, or map required).

3) The “Rock Cycle” concept. (See course “Content” area)

• In a paragraph (and graphic) explain how the “Rock Cycle” concept functions.

• Trace “in the rock cycle” from an intrusive igneous magma to an igneous rock, and then to a metamorphic rock (make sure that you use specific rock type examples).

Trace “in the rock cycle” from a sediment to a sedimentary rock, and then into a metamorphic rock (make sure that you use specific rock type examples

Use the website link below, Internet research, and my course Webliography, along with your Physical Geology, 2nd ed. textbook (esp. Chapters 3, 10, and 18) to complete this assignment. Explore the United States Geological Survey (USGS) “Dynamic Earth” website: http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/dynamic.html.  Note: This weblink is also found in my course Webliography along with more recent plate tectonics Internet sources.

Based on your interpretation of the maps and diagrams in the USGS “Dynamic Earth” website and your textbook answer the following two questions in “essay style”.

A1. Where are the major concentrations of the world’s earthquakes?  What is the main type of plate boundary there?  Are earthquake and volcano locations related to the Pacific “Ring of Fire”?  Give some specific geologic locations around the ring.  What major submarine geologic feature is located near most of the Pacific ring?  Explain how earthquake and volcano locations help support the theory of plate tectonics.

A2. What are the geologic differences between continental plates and oceanic plates?  Which plate type is associated with mainly extrusive igneous rocks, and which is associated with mainly intrusive igneous rocks?  What is the major igneous rock type forming the deep-ocean basins and what is the major igneous rock type forming the base of all the continents?  Describe each rock type and how they differ.  How is this difference related to the depths of the oceans and the higher elevations of the continents?  Make sure that you use specific plates as examples of each. How are the crustal plates related to the asthenosphere?  What is isostacy?  Explain.

PART B.

After viewing my PPT lecture “The Geology of Iceland: Plate Tectonics & The Mid-Atlantic Ridge” answer the following questions:

B1. What did you learn about “plate tectonics” and “diverging plates”?  Why is Iceland such a great natural environment to learn about plate tectonic theory?  Why are there mainly extrusive igneous rocks in Iceland?

B2. What are geologic “hot spots”?  How are they related to plate tectonics?  What volcanic and geothermal activities occur near and on hotspots?  Besides Iceland, name two other hot spot locations.

B3. Answer any of the questions asked within the Iceland lecture (give title and slide number).

B4. Overall, was this a helpful lecture for learning about plate tectonics, hot spots, and extrusive igneous rocks?  What was the most interesting or surprising fact you learned about volcanic Iceland?

answer the following questions and then submit your answers directly on this document to your Project 1 assignments folder.  Read the assignments in your “Physical Geology 2^nd ed. online textbook from Chapter 1 (Introduction to Geology), Chapter 9 (Earth’s Interior), Chapter 10 (Plate Tectonics), and Chapter 18 (Geology of the Oceans).   You are expected to use outside research sources from the Internet and my course “Webliography” (Content area).  Make sure that you give APA-style citations for all research sources, including your textbook, that you used at the end of this project assignment.

1) List and briefly describe at least three types of evidence that supported Alfred Wegener’s “Continental Drift” hypothesis.  You may have to do some research on this

2) What was the main objection from scientists to Wegener’s continental drift hypothesis?

3) How did the “Continental Drift Hypothesis” become “The Theory of Plate Tectonics”?

Define the terms, hypothesis and theory, and briefly explain the theory of plate tectonics.

    Who must decide to accept or deny a scientific theory?    

what newer technology was necessary for more evidence and proving plate tectonic theory?  List and describe at least three (3).

4)  What type of “force” (e.g., tension, compression, or shear) occurs at each type of plate   boundary listed below?   Which one of the three plate boundary types produced the San Andreas Fault and many of California’s earthquakes (use an “X” to show)?  Give a geologic location as an example of each boundary type.

Divergent boundary:                 Force:                            Location example:

Convergent boundary:               Force:                          Location example:

Transform boundary:               Force:                           Location example:

5) What is your location by name __________________________________________

What is your location latitude & longitude? ________________________________

Which tectonic plate do you live on? ______________________________________

In what direction and speed is your plate location moving? ____________________

Which is the nearest plate boundary to your location?  What plate boundary type is it?

6)  What are the three types of “convergent” plate boundaries?

1. a) Location example:

1. b) Location example:
2. c)                                                                      Location example:

7)  Briefly explain how the following geologic features or activity are evidence that support the   theory of plate tectonics.  Give a geologic location example of each.

 Mid-ocean ridges:

Earthquake distribution:

Volcanic eruption locations:

8)  Briefly define and describe each of the following “subduction” features.  Give a geologic location example of each.

Trenches:                                                                      Location example:

Volcanic island arcs:                                                    Location example:

Volcanic mountain ranges:                                            Location example

9)  The ancient supercontinent of Pangaea existed about 300 million years ago (300 my).  Use online geologic research sources for consecutive map views of the breakup of Pangaea over the last 200 Ma (million years ago).  Using these maps, describe how the following continental land masses and ocean basins have changed from 200 Ma (million years ago) to the present.  Answer two (2) of the following:

Atlantic Ocean and Mid-Atlantic Ridge:

       Africa and South America:

       Eastern North America, Europe, and North Africa:

       Mediterranean basin:

       Indian Subcontinent:

• Explain how the Pacific Ocean basin and the Pacific “Ring of Fire” relate to the theory of plate tectonics. How will the Pacific plate change over the next several millions of years (my) into the future?

Make sure you use specific geologic locations to support your answer.

• Provide an example of a situation where a researcher would utilize a directional significance test. What factors contribute to the value of α and when a researcher reports ap value, what are they reporting? Do we typically want a p value to be small or large?

• Provide two scenarios: one where a Type I error occurs and another where a Type II error occurs. What factors influence the magnitude of risk for each of these and what practices might a researcher engage to minimize these risks? If the null hypothesis is incorrectly reported as significant, which type of error is occurring and what might the subsequent implications be? What conclusions, if any, can be drawn from such results?

• If given an extremely non-normal empirical frequency distribution, does it make sense for a researcher to find the percentile rank using the z score and the standard normal distribution table? Why or why not? Describe two distributions (other than normal) that a researcher might encounter in data and when.
• How might the absence of data screening affect a researcher’s data quality, their interpretations of the data, and thereby their interpretations of their study’s findings? What quantitative rule may be used to determine univariate outliers, and are there situations in which deleting a case/participant may be justified? Explain.

• Provide an example of a hypothetical situation in which a Pearson’sr is used. Explain how the sign and magnitude of r would contribute to a researcher’s understanding of the relationship between X and Y. Given the assumptions for use of Pearson’s r, what would a thorough data screening entail to use of (think statistical tests and data visualization)? How might a researcher attempt to decrease the risk of a Type I error while reporting several correlations?

• Discuss the two forms of the regression equation, raw score and z score, and provide examples of situations in which one would be more useful than the other. Explain howr, R, and B are related to one another in bivariate regression.

There are several assumptions for the use of an independent samples t test. State each of these and the implications should these assumptions be violated. Is it possible for a p value to equal 0? Why or why not? 

Warner (2019) highlights a number of assumptions while using the independent sample t test. These assumptions and they include;

1. Assumption of independence-Independence both within and between groups- This assumption implies that when looking at the scores between groups it is expected that each score belongs to only one group. A subject in one group cannot be in another group. If this assumption is violated, such that the scores are pairing, matching or repeated, then an independent sample t-test cannot be carried out and the researcher should consider using the paired ample t test (Warner, 2019). As an example, a researcher wants to determine if the test scores of females and males are different and whether these differences could have occurred because of chance. In this case, the assumption of independence between groups is that all the scores in this example will only belong to only two groups either male or female. On the other hand, the assumption further states that the Y scores should also be independent of each other when compared within the group. This means that each score has no influence on the other. In a research scenario, Warner (2019) states that this can be avoided in the data collection phase by collecting data individually among participants. However, if data is not collected individually, then there is little that can be done once data has been collected and because it is also difficult to screen and detected the non-dependence within groups (Warner , 2019).Warner, (2019) state that ,if this assumption is violated, then the independent sample t tests cannot be used.
2. Assumption of normality -This assumption is that the score of the dependent variable are distributed normally within each of the two populations as defined by the grouping variable (Warner, 2019).A researcher can use the Shapiro- Wilks tests to determine whether to retain the null hypothesis that the assumption of normality has been met or to reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative hypothesis that indicate the assumption of normality has not been met .If the assumption of normality are not met two alternative that a research can use is to transform the data to become normally distributed or run non parametric test which do not require that this assumption be met(Lund Research , n.d.).The implication of running and independent t test on data that is not normally distributed is that it weakens the tests (Kent State University , n.d.).However, Warner(2019) state that if  this assumption is violated, such that the data lack normality but has equal variance, then there  are no serious implications unless the sample used is very small and outliers exist within the groups .
3. Assumption of homogeneity of variance -This assumption states that the variances of the groups that are being measured are equal in the population, A violation of this assumption, results in type I error rate. A researcher can avoid making this error by carrying out a Levene’s F test for equality of variances when running the independent sample T test(Warner, 2019). The test provides an F statistic and a significance value which is the p value. If the p value shows significance, that is p < 0.05, then the assumption has been violated. A research can correct this violation using the Welch-Satterthwaite method that adjust the degrees of freedom (NAU.edu, n.d.).
4. The Y scores are usually quantitative -This is because we are calculating a group mean and therefore means are quantitative in nature and would never be categorical. If the Y variable is categorical as opposed to ratio, then the test cannot be carried out and neither would it make sense (Warner,2019).
5. Assumption that no outliers within groups-Even though this is not stated as a formal assumption, Warner (2019) state that the presence of outliers affects data analysis in the independent sample t test. This comes from the fact that we are comparing means which are not robust against outliers because normality of data is affected especially in cases where the outliers are extreme. The implication of violating this assumption is that the p value obtained on a data set that has extreme outliers will have P value outcomes that are either under or overestimated risk f type one error (Warner, 2019).

Is it possible for a p value to equal 0? Why or why not? 

From the understanding of P value, it can never be zero. It lies along a continuum of 0 and 1.P value describes probability and therefore we can never be certain about a given outcome especially in hypothesis testing we can only be confident about an outcome. Therefore, P value is a regarded as a continuous variable along a probability continuum that lies between 0 and 1 (Andrade, 2019).

• Describe how the idea of causal inference can apply to your interactions in everyday life. Also, make an argument for how the idea of causal inference could be applied the way we approach ministry.

• Begin by explaining what the p value reveals about the probability that a study is replicable. Next. describe the major alternatives to the use of α < .5 (NHST). What is p-hacking? Describe common researcher practices can be described as p-hacking and how research results might be implicated as a result of p-hacking. Moreover, how are future research studies which are attempting to replicate these studies implicated as a result of p-hacking?